Unit 1 Concise Notes and Study Guide

Unit 1 ALL Study Guide Flash Cards: https://quizlet.com/_1gsmsr

Safety Symbol Flash Cards: https://quizlet.com/_rhnp1

Lab Equipment Flash Cards: https://quizlet.com/_10qk7i

Microscope Flash Cards: https://quizlet.com/_136xm0

Unit 1 Equipment, Procedures, and Safety CONCISE Notes

1.    Biology is the study of living things. It has two main divisions.

 a.    Biological

1.  Zoology – the study of animals

2.  Botany – the study of plants.

3.  Ecology ‑ the study of how organisms interact with others and their environment.

4.  Anatomy The study of the internal structure.

5.  Physiology - the branch of science concerned with the functioning of organisms – how it works

6.  Morphology - a branch of biology that deals with the form and structure of animals and plants – the whole organism

7.  Genetics - The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.

8.  Microbiology - The branch of biology that deals with microorganisms and their effects on other living organisms.

 b.   Physical

1.  Chemistry - The branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter is composed

2.  Physics - The branch of science concerned with the nature and properties of matter and energy.

3.  Meteorology - The branch of science concerned with the processes and phenomena of the atmosphere, esp. as a means of forecasting the weather.

4.  Geology- The science that deals with the earth's physical structure and substance, its history, and the processes that act on it.

5.  Astronomy - The branch of science that deals with celestial objects, space, and the physical universe as a whole

 c.    Combined Divisions

1.  Biochemistry - the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physicochemical processes that occur within living organisms.

2.  Biophysics - the science of the application of the laws of physics to biological phenomena.

 2.    Characteristics of Life

 a.    Cellular Organization - all living things are made of cells; all living things have a highly organized system. (Cell - tissue - organ - organ system - organism). The structure of an organism is related to a specific function. Unicellular - made of one cell; multicellular - made of more than one cell

 b.   Reproduction - all living things reproduce; two types: sexual - requires two parents - combining two sets of DNA; asexual - requires one parent

 c.    Metabolism - all living things obtain materials and use energy through complex chemical reactions; autotroph - make their food; heterotroph - eat their food; decomposer - breakdown dead material for food

 d.   Homeostasis - all living things have the ability to maintain a stable internal environment so an organism to survive; examples: blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature...

 e.    Heredity - all living things are based on a genetic code and pass their genetic information (DNA) to their offspring;

 f.    Response to stimuli - all living things respond to stimuli; Stimulus - a factor that causes an organism to adjust; Response - the reaction to a stimulus; Behavior - complex set of responses

 g.   Grow and develop - all living things grow and develop; growth - increase in size and shape; development - mature over time; have a lifespan (live and die)

 h.    Adaptation through evolution - all living things change over time; adapt to changes in the environment to improve survival of the species; structural adaptations - an organisms size or shape; behavioral - how an organism acts; functional - an organism's chemical processes

 3.    Affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are used by biologists and physicians in constructing scientific names and terminology. In general, they are either of Latin or Greek derivation. (https://quizlet.com/_1e1nup)

Lab Equipment Use   

 4.   
Length

 a.    Measured in meters

 b.   Use a ruler or meter stick

1.  Smallest marks on ruler are millimeters (mm)

1.      10mm = 1cm

2.      1000mm = 1m

3.      100cm = 1m

4.      1000m = 1km

2.  If there are no marks for the reading, estimate by reading

3.  between the marks

1.      Ex. If the smallest marks are 1mm apart, then you can estimate to the tenth of a mm by dividing the space into 10 increments

 5.    Accuracy

 a.    A correct measurement, one that is closest to the true measurement

 b.   Accuracy is affected by:

1.  Operator error – not using the equipment correctly or incorrectly reading the instrument

2.  Equipment error – the equipment damaged, such as is the end of the ruler has been cut off

 6.    Precision

 a.    How many decimal places are in a measurement

 b.   Precision can also refer to how reproducible data is.

1.  If different students all measure the temperature of the same substance, their data should be close.

 c.    Precision is affected by the instrument itself, the more marks (smaller increments) on an instrument the more precise it will be.

1.  Ex. A ruler marked in millimeters is more precise than a ruler marked in centimeters because it can be measure to the nearest tenth of a millimeter where are the centimeter ruler can only measure to the nearest tenth of a centimeter (1 millimeter)

 7.    Temperature

 a.    a measure of how hot or cold something is; how fast the molecules of a substance are moving (kinetic energy); faster = hotter = higher temperature

 b.   Measured using a Thermometer.

 c.    Laboratory thermometers measure in degrees Celsius (Celsius), which is based on water

 d.   Converting Temperatures

1.  To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 32 and divide by 1.8.

2.  To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, multiply by 1.8 and add 32.

Common Temperature Comparison	Fahrenheit	Celsius
Boiling Point of Water	212	100
Freezing Point of Water	32	0
Room Temperature	75	24
Normal Body Temperature	98.6	37
Hottest Temperature Recorded (Death Valley, CA in 1913)	134	56.7
Coldest Temperature Recorded (Antarctica in 1983)	-128.6	-89.2

 e.    Thermometer – instrument used to measure temperature

1.  Proper Use of a Thermometer

1.      Read the thermometer at eye level, otherwise the temperature will appear higher or lower than it actually is.

2.      Place the thermometer about halfway down in the beaker or container. Don’t let the thermometer touch the sides or bottom of the container.

3.      Give the thermometer time to adjust, make sure the temp reading is stable before recording it.

4.      Use a thermometer that is marked in every 1 degrees to give a more precise reading. A thermometer marked into smaller units will give a more precise measurement.

 8.    Liquid Measurement 

 a.    Graduated cylinder

1.  Instrument used to measure volume of a liquid or fine powder

2.  Unit is in milliliters (mL)

3.  Graduations - marks on a graduated cylinder

4.  To be the most accurate and precise, use a graduated cylinder with the smallest marks

5.  Rules for measuring with a graduated cylinder:

1.      Put the graduated cylinder on a level surface.

2.      Read the graduated cylinder at eye level.

3.      Read from the bottom of the curve, which is called the meniscus.

 b.   Pipettes, burettes, and syringes are pieces of equipment that are used for measuring very small liquid measurements.

 c.    Droppers can also be used for dispensing and measuring small amounts of liquids, but a dropper is not as precise.

 9.    Storing, Handling, and Observing Liquids and Specimens

 a.    Test tubes - mix or handle small amounts of liquids

1.  Never heat a test tube with a cap. The expanding gases could cause the test tube to explode, burning you or others.

 b.   Beakers (1-7) or flasks (1-8) are commonly used for storing and mixing liquids, but never for measuring.

1.  Ex. A 250ml beaker can hold 250ml but not measure it accurately or precisely

 c.    A petri dish is commonly filled with an agar and nutrient solution and then used to grow and observe bacteria cultures. It can also be used to observe seed germination or small animal behaviors.

 10.Mass

 a.    A measure of how much matter is in an object

 b.   Mass is used in the laboratory, as weight is different depending on location (gravity)

 c.    Triple-beam balance

1.  An instrument used to measure mass in units called grams

2.  To use a triple beam balance:

1.      Make sure it is on a flat surface

2.      Move the 3 sliders as far left as they will go

3.      The indicator line on the right should be in line with the white mark

4.      If it is not in line, calibrate the balance by turning the screw under the pan until it is in line.

5.      Place the object you are measuring on the pan and move the 100g to the right on the beam until the indicator drips below the mark

6.      Move the slider back one notch to the left so that the indicator is once again above or equal to the zero mark. Make sure that the slider clicks into place. The slider will point to the number of tens of grams in the object.

7.      The one gram slider is not notched, so you can move it anywhere on the beam. The numbers marked on this beam are in grams, and the marks in between the numbers are tenths of grams.

8.      By adding all the numbers on all 3 beams together, you can find the mass of the object.

 11.Weight

 a.    A measurement of the force of gravity on an object, and it is measured in Newtons using a spring scale.

 b.   To find the weight of an object using this spring scale:

1.  Hold the scale up and attach the object to be weighed to the hook at the bottom.

2.  The spring will stretch, and the pointer will move along the scale and point to the number that shows the object’s weight.

 12.Microscopes

 a.    Instrument used to study objects smaller than the eye can see (0.1mm)

 b.   Units of Microscopes

1.  Micrometer (um) = 1/1,000 of a millimeter

2.  Nanometer (nm) = 1/1,000,000 of a millimeter

 c.    Light Microscope

1.  Can view living objects

2.  Can view natural color

3.  Resolution to only 200nm

4.  Easy to use

5.  Fairly inexpensive

 d.   Electron Microscope

1.  Two kinds

1.      SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope - view 3D images of the surface of an object - 200,000x magnification

2.      TEM - Transmission Electron Microscope - view thin layer of inside of object, cannot see surface - 50 million x magnification

2.  Objects cannot be alive

3.  Black and white images only, although a computer can be used to add color

4.  Resolution to 0.2nm

5.  Must be trained to use

6.  Very Expensive

 e.    Magnification

1.  To determine the magnification of the microscope

2.  Multiply the strength of the ocular (eyepiece) times the strength of the objective you are using.

1.      For example, most oculars are 10x and the low power objective is 4x. The magnification would be 40x.

3.  Low magnification has a large field of view, and in contrast, high magnification has a small field of view.

4.  Function of the Parts of a Light Microscope

1.      Ocular or eyepiece - contains a lens that magnifies

2.      Arm - - provides support for the body tube

3.      Stage - the platform where a slide is placed to be viewed

4.      Stage opening - allows light to pass through the slide

5.      Fine adjustment knob - used to bring the specimen into sharp focus

6.      Coarse adjustment knob - used to focus the microscope

7.      Base – supports the entire microscope

8.      Light or mirror - produces or reflects light up through the specimen on the slide to the eye

9.      Diaphragm - regulates the amount of light

10.  Diaphragm lever - opens or closes diaphragm

11.  Stage clips - - holds the slide in place

12.  High power objective - provides the smallest field of view and highest magnification

13.  Low-power objective  - provides the largest field of view and lowest magnification

14.  Nosepiece - holds the objectives and rotates to change magnification

15.  Body tube - allows light to pass up to the eye and provides the proper distance between the eyepiece lens and the objective lens.

5.  Steps to Using a Microscope

1.      Carry the microscope with one hand under the base and your other hand holding the arm.

2.      Make sure the cord is wrapped securely around the base and is not dangling. Place the microscope on the table with the arm towards you and the back of the base about an inch from the table’s edge.

3.      Wipe the eyepiece lens (ocular) and the lens of each objective with a piece of lens paper. Turn the low power objective in line with the body tube. It should click into position. If the microscope is electric, plug the power cord into an electrical outlet.

4.      Turn on the light or adjust the mirror, and turn the diaphragm so that the greatest amount of

light is admitted. Place your eye to the eyepiece. You should see a uniform circle of light called the field of view.

5.      Place a prepared slide on the stage of the microscope and clip it into place. Adjust the

slide with your fingers until the letter is in the center of the stage opening and hold it in place with the stage clips.

6.      While watching from the side of the microscope, turn the low power objective down as far as it will go. Do not touch the slide with the objective lens or force it when it reaches the automatic stop.

7.      Place your eye to the eyepiece and, as you watch the field, turn the coarse adjustment knob slowly toward you. Watch for the material on the slide to appear in the field. Always use the coarse adjustment to bring the slide into focus.

8.      Bring the specimen into sharp focus with the fine adjustment knob. As you look through the eyepiece, turn the fine adjustment knob slowly back and forth. Different fine adjustments will shift the focus to bring out details at different levels of an object.

9.      Make sure that the specimen is in the exact center of the field, check for sharp focus, and turn the medium-power objective into position. Correct the focus by first using the coarse adjustment knob, then the fine adjustment knob.

10.  Make sure that the specimen is in the exact center of the field, check for sharp focus, and turn the high-power objective into position.

11.  Correct the high power focus by using the fine adjustment only. You will notice that you can see more of the slide using the low-power objective but you don’t see as much detail. When using the high power objective, the field of view is smaller, but you see more detail.

12.  After you have observed your specimen, remove the slide and turn the low power objective back into place. Clean the lenses and stage with lens paper. Don’t forget to turn off the light and unplug the microscope if needed.

13.  The microscope should be covered to protect it from dust and then stored according to your teacher’s instructions.

6.  How to Make a Wet-Mount Slide

1.      Get a slide and coverslip and make sure that they are clean.

2.      Place your specimen in the center of the slide. Remember that it should be thin enough to allow light to pass through it.

3.      Place a drop of water on the specimen.

4.      Hold the coverslip at a 45˚ angle to the slide as shown in the figure. Carefully lower the edge of the coverslip until it touches the drop of water. Then slowly lower the coverslip so that the water drop spreads out evenly.

5.      Try not to trap any air bubbles under the coverslip. If you do, gently tap the coverslip with a pencil eraser to remove the bubble.

6.      If your drop of water was large and there is excess water under the coverslip, you can remove the extra water by holding a paper towel to the edge of the coverslip. The coverslip will hold the specimen in place. Your specimen is now ready to view.

 13.Equipment Used for Heating

 a.    Bunsen Burner – uses a flame to heat objects in the laboratory

1.  The flame of a Bunsen burner can reach temperatures up to 1,500C (2,732F).

2.  Commonly used to heat liquids in test tubes or solid objects held by tongs.

3.  Steps to Use a Bunsen Burner

1.      Make sure that the gas outlet handle is fully closed – at a 90°angle to the outlet.

2.      Connect the hose leading from the burner to the gas outlet.

3.      Turn the handle on the gas outlet to open – the handle will be parallel to the outlet.

4.      Turn the gas adjustment knob at the base of the burner to allow good gas flow through the burner.

5.      Hold a lighted match a little to the side of the gas flow so that the gas flow doesn’t blow out the flame. Turn the air control vent to get a blue flame. The hottest part of the flame will be at the top of the bright blue inner flame.

4.  Rules for Heating a Test Tube

1.      Always use a test tube clamp to hold the test tube bye the body, not the rim. Tongs

and holders not designed to hold test tubes can easily break the glass, so use only test tube clamps specifically mad to hold test tubes.

2.      Do not cap or plug the tube while you are heating it.

3.      The open end of the test tube should always be pointed away from yourself and others.

4.      Don’t fill the test tube all the way to the top.

5.      Don’t put the test tube in the hottest part of the flame. Keep the test tube moving in and out of the flame so one part doesn’t overheat.

6.      Always pull back longhair

 b.   Hot Plate – uses electricity to heat objects in the laboratory

1.  Commonly used to heat liquids in beakers and flasks, especially when the liquid needs to be stirred.

2.  Even though they do not produce an open flame, they should be used with caution and never be left unattended.

 c.    Heat Safety

1.  Open flames and hot plates should never be left unattended.

2.  Keep all flammable and combustible materials away from open flames.

3.  Use appropriate equipment to handle hot glassware. Use test tube holders for test tubes; use tongs for beakers, flasks, or crucibles, or use heat resistant gloves (often made of asbestos) when handling hot glassware.

4.  Hot glassware looks the same as cold glassware! You cannot tell if glassware is hot or not by looking at it. If in doubt, handle the glassware as if it is too hot to touch by using the appropriate clamps, tongs, or gloves.

 14.Laboratory Safety and Protective Equipment

 a.    Emergency Eyewash Station - should be used only when needed to rinse away chemicals that have gotten into your eyes. Instructions for using the eyewash are on the eyewash. They will include holding your eyes open in the stream of water for 5 to 15 minutes.

 b.   Safety Shower - is used only when necessary to rinse off chemicals that are splashed or spilled onto your skin or clothing.

 c.    Absorbent Material - is used to contain small spills.

 d.   Biohazards Container - is used for disposal of living tissues, cells, or any other biohazard.

 e.    Broken Glass Container - should be used instead of a trash can to get rid of broken glassware.

 f.    Fire Extinguisher - is used to put out small fires. You should read the directions before an emergency occurs. Most fire extinguishers work by using “PASS”

1.  P – pull the pin

2.  A – aim the nozzle

3.  S – squeeze the handle to release the foam/chemical

4.  S – sweep the nozzle from side to side, always pointing at the base of the flames

 g.   Safety Glasses/Goggles - must be worn if any chemicals, biohazards, or glassware is used.

 h.   Latex or Nitrile Gloves - may be needed to protect your hands against biohazards or chemicals.

 i.     Heat-resistant Gloves - may be needed to protect your hands from heat.

 j.     Lab Aprons - help protect your skin and clothing from chemicals or biohazards.

 k.   Safety is the first priority in any laboratory.

 15.General Safety Rules

1.  Do not attempt any unauthorized experiments. Do only what your teacher has approved and told you to do.

2.  Read all directions before you begin every lab activity and follow the instructions carefully.

3.  If you are not sure what you should do during the activity, stop and get help from the teacher.

4.  If you get confused during an activity and are not sure of what you have done, dispose of the materials you were using and start over.

5.  Your teacher will tell you how to dispose of chemicals correctly – do not pour them down the drain. Never put any unused chemical back into the original container.

6.  In case of a spill or broken glass, follow your teacher’s instructions.

7.  Tell your teacher about any accidents, even little ones that you think don’t matter.

8.  Clean up your area after finishing the activity, and wash your hands before you leave the classroom.

9.  Clean up spills immediately.

10.  Always tie back long hair in the lab.

11.   Always wear closed toed shoes in lab.

12.  Always walk in the lab. No horseplay.

13.  Before touching anything electric, hands should be dry.

14.  Never inhale fumes from chemicals unless directed to do so. If an experiment calls for a chemical to be smelled, it should be wafted to the nose by holding the chemical away from the nose and gently moving the fumes towards the nose with the hand. When smelling a liquid waft it toward you.

15.  Remember - Safety First!

 16.Safety Symbols - alert you to possibly hazards and remind you that special precautions and protective equipment may be needed to a certain activity.