Unit 9: Cellular Reproduction Concise Notes, Study Guide, and Vocabulary Terms

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Study Guide: https://quizlet.com/_1e3zvc

Unit 9: Cellular Reproduction CONCISE Notes

1.       Cell Division                       

a.       Growth, repair, and reproduce

b.      If a cell grows too large, then it would take too long to get nutrients to all parts of the cell and it would die

c.       Cell division is the process in which two cells are produced from one cell.

d.      DNA

                                                               i.      DNA is in the form of chromatin during much of the cells life.

1.       Chromatin consists of long, thin, strands of DNA wrapped around proteins.

                                                             ii.      DNA is in the form of chromosomes during cell division.

1.       Chromosomes are strands of chromatin that have become tightly packed.

2.       Sister chromatids are the parts of a chromosome - the original and a copy of a chromosome.

a.       Sister chromatids are held together by a centromere.

3.       We refer to the copied pair of chromatids as a homologous chromosome.

a.       Each chromatid is a chromosome.

                                                            iii.      Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes – the original and a copy of each) during mitosis, which is the only time that chromosomes are visible.

Know the parts of a chromosome

2.       The Cell Cycle

a.       The order of events that occurs in the life of a cell

b.      Controlled by enzymes, which monitor the progress of the cell cycle through its phases

                                                               i.      The cell cycle may become out of control, either through the failure to produce the correct enzymes or the production of enzymes at the wrong time.

                                                             ii.      Enzyme production is controlled by genes located on the chromosomes.

1.       Gene – segment of DNA that controls the production of a protein

                                                            iii.      Cancer is one result of uncontrolled cell division (mitosis)

1.       A result of changes in one or more of the genes that produce enzymes that are involved in controlling the cell cycle. 

2.       These changes are expressed as cancer when something prompts the damaged genes into action. 

3.       Cancerous cells form masses of tissue called tumors that deprive normal cells of nutrients. 

4.       Metastasis is the process in which cancel cells enter the circulatory system a spread throughout the body to different organs

5.       Cancer prevention – the second leading cause of death in the U.S. after heart disease

a.       Lung, Colon, Breast, and Prostate cancers most prevalent

b.      Diet low in fat and high in fiber – fruits, vegetables, and grains

c.       Vitamins and minerals – vitamins A, C, D, and calcium

d.      Carotenoids found in yellow and orange foods and green leafy vegetables

e.      Daily exercise

f.        Limit tobacco and other drug use

c.       3 Parts – interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis

d.      Interphase - The period of growth and development of a cell

                                                               i.      In a multicellular organism, the cell does its particular job

                                                             ii.      Most of the cell’s life is spent in interphase - longest part of cell cycle

                                                            iii.      Three Parts of Interphase

1.       G1 – (Growth 1) – the cell grows and develops, making proteins, organelles double

2.       S – (Synthesis) – DNA (chromatin) is replicated (copied) resulting in twice amount of chromatin

3.       G2 – ( Growth 2) – rapid growth, preparing for division

e.      Mitosis – Open mitosis - The division of the nucleus (Karyokinesis); Stages - PMAT - Paul Meets Anna Tonight

                                                               i.      Results in two cells that are identical to the parent cell

                                                             ii.      Different in unicellular and multicellular organisms

1.       At the end of mitosis, unicellular organisms remain as single organisms – this is a form of reproduction

2.       Multicellular organisms create groups of cells called tissues that work together to perform a specific function, which then form organs, then form systems, then the whole organism

                                                            iii.      Fungi cells have a different way to complete some of the steps of mitosis

                                                           iv.      4 Parts – Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

                                                             v.      Prophase – Pair Up

1.       Chromatin condenses into chromosomes – now visible because they shorten and thicken – held together by centromere

2.       Nucleolus and nuclear membrane break down

3.       In animal cells, centrioles move apart to opposite ends of the cell (to the poles)

a.       Small, dark, cylindrical structures made of microtubules

4.       Spindle fibers form

a.       Made from microtubules

b.      Help sister chromatids separate in Anaphase

                                                           vi.      Metaphase - Middle

1.       Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell (in the equator)

2.       Spindle fibers attach to the centromere on each side of a chromosome, one for each sister chromatid

                                                          vii.      Anaphase - Away

1.       Sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centromere

2.       The chromatids move to opposite poles, pulled by the shortening spindle fibers

3.       Cytokinesis begins

                                                        viii.      Telophase – Two New Nuclei

1.       Two identical sets of chromatids are now at each pole

2.       The chromatids begin to unwind into chromatin

3.       Spindle fibers and centrioles begin to breakdown

4.       Two new nuclear membranes form around the chromatin

                                                           ix.      Fungi Mitosis

1.       Closed mitosis - In fungi, the nuclear membrane does not breakdown

2.       All of the stages of mitosis occur inside of the nucleus

f.        Cytokinesis - The cytoplasm divides and organelles are equally divided between two new cells

                                                               i.      The parent cell splits into two new daughter cells

                                                             ii.      Different in plant and animal cells

1.       Plant cells form a cell plate between the new cells across the equator

a.       A cell membrane forms around each new cell and new cell walls form on each side of the cell plate until separation is complete, dividing the cell in half

2.       Animal cells pinch the cell membrane together along the equator

a.       A cleavage furrow develops as the animal cell begins cytokinesis until both sides of the cell membrane meet and the cell separates into two new cells

g.       The two new cells immediately enter Interphase

h.      Mitosis Mistakes

                                                               i.      Usually occurs during metaphase and results in one cell receiving (or missing) and extra chromosome

                                                             ii.      The cell may not function and die or may result in a tumor (see 2iii)

3.       The Cell Cycle of Sex Cells

a.       Two kinds of cells in organisms that sexually reproduce

                                                               i.      Somatic cells – body cells – all cells except sex cells

1.       Formed from Mitosis.

2.       Diploid (2n) - Contain all of the chromosomes of the organism

a.       Human somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

                                                                                                                                       i.      Homologous Chromosomes (homologues)- The two chromosomes that make up each pair

1.       One of the pair came from the mother, the other from the father

2.       One may have the gene for blue eyes, while the other has the gene for brown eyes

                                                             ii.      Sex cells ( Gametes)

1.       Formed from Meiosis.

2.       Haploid (n) - Contain half of the chromosomes of the organism

a.       Human gametes contain 23 chromosomes

3.       Two Kinds – Sperm in males, Egg in females

a.       Spermatogenesis – the production of sperm cells

                                                                                                                                       i.      One diploid cell produces four haploid sperm cells

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Meiosis I – a diploid sperm cell divides equally producing two cells of equal size

                                                                                                                                    iii.      Meiosis II – the two diploid cells divide again resulting in four haploid spermatozoa (sperm) of equal size

b.      Oogenesis – the production of ova (egg cells) - ovum

                                                                                                                                       i.      One diploid cell produces one haploid egg cell and possibly four polar bodies

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Meiosis I – a diploid cell egg cell divides unequally producing one cell with most of the cytoplasm and cell organelles, and a smaller cell

                                                                                                                                    iii.      Meiosis II – the larger cell divides again a larger haploid egg cell with most of the cytoplasm and organelles, and smaller polar bodies that then disintegrate
Know these diagrams:

                                                            iii.      Sexual Reproduction Overview

1.       One haploid sperm and one haploid egg merge together (fertilization) and form a zygote (fertilized egg that is diploid), resulting in one diploid cell with 46 chromosomes

2.       Fraternal Twins – two eggs are fertilized separately (two different sperm) at the same time that have a different set of chromosomes

3.       Identical Twins – one fertilized eggs splits and develops two babies that have the same original set of chromosomes

b.      Meiosis – the formation of sex cells (Reproductive cells)

                                                               i.      Two Parts – Meiosis I and Meiosis II, with 4 stages each - 8 stages total

1.       Meiosis I is similar to mitosis except that Synapsis occurs and Crossing Over may occur

2.       Meiosis II is identical to Mitosis

                                                             ii.      Allows for genetic variation in a species

                                                            iii.      Produces haploid cells that are not identical – they have half the normal number of chromosomes

                                                           iv.      Meiosis I

1.       Prophase I

a.       Chromatin condenses into chromosomes – now visible

b.      Spindle fibers form

c.       Centrioles move to the poles

d.      Nuclear membrane disintegrates

e.      Synapsis – homologous chromosomes pair up

f.        Crossing Over may occur between non-sister homologous chromosomes

2.       Metaphase I

a.       Paired homologous chromosomes move to the equator

b.      Spindle connects to the centromeres

3.       Anaphase I

a.       Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles

4.       Telophase I

a.       Spindle disappears

b.      Nuclear membranes appear

c.       Cell pinches into two (cytokinesis) - 2 Haploid cells are made

                                                             v.      Meiosis II – identical to mitosis – with the two cells from meiosis I

1.       Prophase II

a.       Nuclear membranes disappear

b.      Spindle forms

c.       Centrioles move to the poles

d.      Chromatin condenses into chromosomes

2.       Metaphase II

a.       Non-homologous chromosomes move to the equator

b.      Spindle attach to each sister chromatid

3.       Anaphase II

a.       Spindle pull sister chromatids to opposite poles

4.       Telophase II

a.       Chromosomes unwind into chromatin

b.      Cell membrane pinches - cytokinesis

c.       4 Haploid cells form

                                                           vi.      Meiosis Mistakes

1.       Trisomy – an extra chromosome is present

a.       Down Syndrome – an extra chromosome number 21 – the zygote has 47 chromosomes

2.       Monosomy – missing a chromosome – most zygotes do not survive

4.       Asexual Reproduction – new organism from one parent – genetically identical - usually with the same number of chromosomes

a.       Usually results in a large number of identical organisms which may increase the chances of survival if the environment is stable

b.      If the environment is changing, then the chance of survival decreases because there is no genetic variation

c.       Only requires one parent

d.      Many Types

                                                               i.      Binary Fission – a single cell splits in half – how bacteria and many prokaryotes reproduce; also paramecium

                                                             ii.      Budding – s small area of cells attached to the parent starts to grow and then detaches when it is a separate organism; many fungi and simple animals like the Hydra reproduce by budding.

                                                            iii.      Vegetative Propagation - plants send out runners that allow a new plant to grow, or cuttings from a plant can be rooted and grown into mature plants.

                                                           iv.      Fragmentation – a small broken piece of an organism grows into an adult; eg. Starfish

1.       Regeneration – regrowing a missing body part; eg. Starfish, planaria, sponges

                                                             v.      Parthenogenesis – an unfertilized egg develops into an adult

1.       Occurs in some types of insects, some reptiles; eg. Drone honey bees

                                                           vi.      Spore formation – a spore grows into an adult under favorable conditions; some algae, protozoans, plants, and fungi

1.       Spore - a reproductive cell with a tough outer covering – may be diploid or haploid

Budding:

Parthenogenesis:

 

Fragmentation:

Vegetative Propagation: 

Binary Fission:

5.       Sexual Reproduction

a.       Offspring are genetically different from the parents, which may help them adapt

b.      Offspring are produced more slowly and in fewer numbers so fewer survive

c.       Usually requires two parents

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Unit 8: Cellular Energy Notes, Vocabulary Terms, and Study Guide

Cellular Energy Vocabulary Terms: https://quizlet.com/_tzzbk
Cellular Energy Study Guide: https://quizlet.com/_1e42h1

Unit 8: Cellular Energy CONCISE Notes

1.       ATP – adenosine triphosphate

a.       Molecule that stores energy for the cell in its chemical bonds

b.      Structure

                                                               i.      Adenosine molecule

                                                             ii.      Ribose sugar

                                                            iii.      Three phosphate groups

                                                           iv.      Structure like a nucleic acid but with three phosphate groups

 

c.       Function – energy for all cellular activities

                                                               i.      Ex. Cilia and flagella movement, active transport, cell division, production of proteins, muscle contraction…

d.      ADP – adenosine diphosphate – same structure as ATP except only two phosphate groups

e.      Making ATP: adding a third phosphate group to ADP

                                                               i.      Occurs in the mitochondria of the cell

                                                             ii.      Similar to putting two like poles of a magnet together, it takes a lot of energy to put attach the phosphate groups together

                                                            iii.      ATP synthetase (an enzyme) attaches the phosphate groups together

f.        Releasing Energy: removing the third phosphate group from ATP

                                                               i.      ATPase (an enzyme) breaks off the third phosphate group

                                                             ii.      This creates ADP which can then be reused to make ATP

2.       Cellular Respiration

a.       Breaking down food (glucose) molecules to release energy

b.      Occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondrion

c. Structure of the mitochondrion

                                                               i.      Inner and outer membranes

                                                             ii.      Cristae – fold in the inner membrane – Electron transport chain occurs here

                                                            iii.      Matrix – internal space of inner membrane – Krebs Cycle occurs here

d.       Reactants (raw materials) – chemicals needed for the reaction to take place

                                                               i.      One molecule of Glucose - C₆H₁₂O₆

                                                             ii.      Six molecules of Oxygen - 6O₂

e.      Products – what is made from the reactants

                                                               i.      Six molecules of Carbon Dioxide - 6CO₂

                                                             ii.      Six Molecules of Water – 6H₂O

                                                            iii.      36 ATP

a.       Formula: C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂ -> 6CO₂+6H₂O+36 ATP

b.     Glucose + Oxygen " Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP

e.      Two Types

                                                               i.      Aerobic – requires oxygen

1.       Process

a.       Glycolysis

                                                                                                                                       i.      Occurs in the cytoplasm and makes 2 ATP

b.      Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle )

                                                                                                                                       i.      Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria and uses the 2 ATP from Glycolysis to make 2 ATP

c.       Electron Transport Chain

                                                                                                                                       i.      Occurs in the cristae of the mitochondria and makes 34 ATP

                                                             ii.      Anaerobic – does not require oxygen

1.       Not as efficient as Aerobic Respiration

2.       Process

a.       Occurs in the cytoplasm – basically just Glycolysis and Fermentation

b.      Makes 2 ATP

3.       Two Types

a.       Lactic acid fermentation

                                                                                                                                       i.      Occurs in animal cells and some bacteria – produces 2 ATP

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Ex. Muscles during strenuous exercise

1.       When oxygen is scarce muscle cells can continue to use energy

2.       The by-product lactic acid builds up and causes muscle soreness

b.      Alcoholic fermentation

                                                                                                                                       i.      Occurs in plant and yeast cells – produces 2 ATP

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Ex. Making Bread

1.       Yeast cells make ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide which makes the bread rise

3.       Photosynthesis

a.       Converting the energy from sunlight into food (glucose - stored chemical energy)

b.      Occurs in plant cells that have chloroplasts and in some bacteria and protists

c.       Reactants (raw materials) – chemicals needed for the reaction to take place

                                                               i.      Six molecules of Carbon Dioxide - 6CO₂

                                                             ii.      Six Molecules of Water – 6H₂O

                                                            iii.      Sunlight and chlorophyll

d.      Products – what is made from the reactants

                                                               i.      One molecule of Glucose - C₆H₁₂O₆

                                                             ii.      Six molecules of Oxygen - 6O₂

e.      Formula: 6CO₂+6H₂O+Sunlight -> C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂

f.        Carbon dioxide + Water and Sunlight " Glucose + Oxygen

g.       Structure of A Leaf Cell

                                                               i.      Cuticle – waxy layer that holds in moisture

                                                             ii.      Upper Epidermis – protects the leaf

                                                            iii.      Palisade layer – has lots of chloroplasts; where most of the photosynthesis takes place

                                                           iv.      Spongy Mesophyll – has many air pockets to absorb gases and some water

                                                             v.      Stoma (plural stomata) – openings that allow gases to enter and leave the leaf

1.       Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata

2.       Oxygen leaves the leaf through the stomata

3.       Transpiration - Water vapor also leaves the leaf through stomata

                                                           vi.      Guard cells – open and close the stoma

                                                          vii.      Lower Epidermis – protects the leaf

h.      Process

                                                               i.      Occurs in the chloroplast

1.       Structure of the chloroplast

a.       Thylakoids – disk like structures - Light dependent stage occurs here

b.      Granum (plural – grana) – stacks of thylakoids

c.   Stroma – solution that surrounds Grana - Light independent stage occurs here

                                                             ii.      Carbon Dioxide enters the leaf through openings in the underside of the leaf called stomata (singular – stoma)

                                                            iii.      Water enters the plant through the roots

                                                           iv.      Two Stages

1.       Light Dependent Stage

a.       Occurs in the thylakoids of the chlorophyll inside the chloroplast

b.      Chlorophyll absorbs the energy from the sunlight

c.       Water molecules are split forming oxygen and hydrogen ions (H+)

2.       Light Independent Stage (Calvin Cycle)

a.       Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast

b.      Carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions combine to form glucose

4.       Cellular Respiration Compared to Photosynthesis

a.       Opposite processes

                                                               i.      Products of one are the reactants of the other

b.      Photosynthesis stores energy in glucose

c.       Cellular respiration uses glucose to release energy in the form of ATP

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1.  Water is taken up through the roots.
2. Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata.
3. The energy from the sun is captured by chlorophyll.
4.  Oxygen is released through the stomata.
5. Glucose is stored in plant tissues.

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1. Chlorophyll captures the energy from the sun.
2. Water enters the leaf from the roots.
3. Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata.
4. Photosynthesis takes place in the plant cell.
5. Glucose is stored in plant tissues.
6. Oxygen leaves the leaf through the stomata.