Units 15, 16, 17 Notes and Study Links

Units 15, 16, 17 Classification CONCISE Notes Condensed
Unit 15: https://quizlet.com/_1eamqp
Unit 16: https://quizlet.com/_10qwbq
Unit 17:
Units 15-17: 

1.       The Six Kingdom System (Three Domains)
Domain Archae	Domain Bacteria	Domain Eukarya
Archaebacteria	Eubacteria	Protista	Fungi	Plantae	Animalia
Prokaryotes		Eukaryotes – have nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

2.       Kingdom Archaebacteria	Kingdom Eubacteria
Prokaryotes - no cell wall or membrane bound organelles; have ribosomes and cell wall Unicellular – made of one cell -Binary fission – form of asexual reproduction that is quick and produces large numbers of offspring -May do Conjugation – a primitive kind of sexual reproduction
-Autotrophs (can make their own food) – most do chemosynthesis – use chemicals to make food -Some do photosynthesis	Autotrophs – photosynthesis Heterotrophs (cant’ make their own food): -Parasitic – feed on other living organisms -Saprotrophs – eat decomposing / dead organisms
-Live in harsh environments –volcanic vents; alkali lakes	-Live in hospitable environments -Some form endospores - Dormant stage can survive harsh environments until conditions become favorable
Bacteria Pros -Nitrogen-fixing bacteria make nitrogen accessible to plants (nitrogen cycle) -Decomposers (saprotrophs) break down and recycle organic and inorganic materials – nature’s recyclers -Cyanobacteria – photosynthetic bacteria that live in water and make a large amount of oxygen -Foods such as pickles, yogurt, sauerkraut, and Swiss cheese get distinctive odors and flavors -Some antibiotics are made (neomycin and erythromycin) with certain kinds of bacteria -Probiotics – some bacteria live in the intestines and help absorption of nutrients and strengthen the immune system	Classified by Shape: -Coccus – round -Bacillus – rod -Spirilium – spiral
	Bacteria Cons -Cause diseases such as Lyme disease, botulism, tetanus, strep throat, cavities

3.       Kingdom Protista
-Eukaryotes that live in water or moist soil -Unicellular or multicellular autotrophs or heterotrophs -microscopic or macroscopic - Catch-all kingdom - organisms that don’t fit in the other kingdoms -Contractile Vacuole – pumps out extra water to prevent cell from bursting Protist Pros – algae food source for many animals;  produce much of world’s oxygen; used in household items; Protist Cons – protozoans and sporozoans cause disease – once causes malaria
Animal-like Protists		Plant-like Protists				Fungi-like Protists
-called Protozoans -unicellular -heterotrophs -Reproduce by binary fission or a primitive form of sexual reproduction -Ciliates – have cilia for locomotion – paramecium -Flagellates – have flagella for locomotion –  Giardia lamblia causes diarrhea -Amoebas – have pseudopods for locomotion -Sporozoans – parasitic protists		-called Algae -unicellular or multicellular -reproduce by binary fission (unicellular) or asexual or sexual (multicellular) -contain pigments like chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis – green, brown, red, or golden-colored -euglena – have flagella and eye spot to find light – may use photosynthesis or eat bacteria or other protists -Diatoms – unicellular with glass-like outer shells; collect their remains for diatomaceous earth – many uses				-decompose dead organisms -able to move from place to place for part of life cycle -reproduce asexually and sexually -many are very colorful -slime molds, downy mildews, water molds
4.       Kingdom Fungi
-Grow anywhere there is moisture; cannot move from place to place			-Main Groups: mushrooms, molds, yeast
Mushrooms – reproduce through basidiospores	Molds - reproduce asexually with spores; sexually by combining hyphae			Yeast - reproduce by budding
-Saprotrophs – break down dead or decaying organisms			-Cell walls made of chitin – a complex carbohydrate
Extracelular digestion - Send out hyphae (threadlike structures) into their food that excrete enzymes that break down the large food molecules into smaller ones that then diffuse into the hyphae Fungi cons: -rusts and smuts cause disease in timber and crops -Some spores are harmful or fatal if inhaled -ringworm is a parasitic fungus that causes athlete’s foot			Fungi pros: -Food – people eat mushrooms; yeast makes bread rise ; some molds used to make cheese -Medication – Penicillium used to make antibiotic -Lichen are made of a fungus and an algea and help break down rocks into soil so plants can grow and helps enrich the soil with nutrients
Fungi  vs. Plants
Cell wall made of chitin			Cell wall made of cellulose
Heterotroph – breakdown dead organisms for food			Autotroph - photosynthesis
Closed mitosis – nucleus does not disintegrate			Open mitosis – nucleus does disintegrate
5.       Kingdom Plantae
-Botanist – scientist who studies plants -Use Division instead of Phylum in taxa; 12 divisions recognized by scientists -All plants are: eukaryotic; multicellular; autotrophic; have chloroplasts; cell wall made cellulose; do not move from place to place Two Main Kinds: Bryophytes and Tracheophytes
Bryophytes			Tracheophytes
Non-vascular – do not have xylem or phloem to move water, food, nutrients and minerals around the plant			Vascular - have xylem or phloem tissue to move water, food, nutrients and minerals around the plant
-Do not have true roots, stems, leaves -Diffusion and osmosis move water and nutrients into cells of plant -these processes are too slow to make a large plant; most only a few centimeters tall			Xylem – moves water around the plant Phloem – moves food around the plant
Need moisture to reproduce			Two Kinds:
Alternation of generations - alternate between sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction -Gametophyte stage – haploid sperm and egg are made by meiosis -Sporophyte stage – diploid spores are produced, which are similar to seeds			Seedless Vascular Plants -least complex -has true roots and leaves -use spores instead of seeds -Ferns – can be very tall due to vascular tissue -rhizomes – thick underground stem -Fronds – leaves that produce spores -sporangia – structure on bottom of frond that produces spores		Seed-Bearing Vascular Plants -use seeds to reproduce Two Kinds of Seed-Bearing: -Gymnosperms -Angiosperms Two Kinds of Angiosperms: -Monocots -Dicots
Examples: Mosses – most well know; liverworts; hornwort

6.       Tracheophytes: Gymnosperms
-Seeds not enclosed in a fruit - Many protect their seeds in a cone -Conifers most common - Produce seeds in cones       -Needle or scale-like leaves -Evergreen – remain green all year Examples:  Redwoods, pine trees, Cedars, Spruce, Firs
7.       Tracheophytes: Angiosperms
-Most complex and most abundant plants -Attract insects and animals to help pollination and dispersion of seeds -Ovary develops into a fruit to protect the seed - Fruits and seeds are food for many animals -Two groups: monocots and dicots
8.       Monocots		Dicots
-One cotyledon (seed leaf) -parallel leaf veins -fibrous (branching) roots	-flowers in multiples of 3 -corn, grasses, lillies	-two cotyledons -branched veins -taproot	-flowers in multiples of 4 or 5 -170,000 different species

9.       Flower Structure
Sepals – green parts that protect the flower before it blooms	Petals – attract pollinators like honeybees, butterflies, moths, hummingbirds
Female Parts: Pistil – stigma (very sticky), style, ovary -ovary contains ovules that produce eggs	Male Parts Stamen – anther, filament -anther produces pollen that contains sperm cells
____________________________________________________________________________ 10.   Reproduction
Pollination – the transfer of  pollen from the male part to the female part of a flower -May occur by wind, water, or pollinating animals Steps – pollen sticks to top of stigma, forms a pollen tube which travels down the ovary; sperm from pollen merges -with ovum

11.   Plant Tissues
Stems -support leaves and flowers -transport materials -xylem transports water -phloem transports nutrients like food and minerals Seed Adaptations: -some surrounded by fruits - flowering plants - eaten by animals and spread when eliminated far away from the parent plant to prevent competition -some have wings – carried by wind – maple tree seeds -some float – coconuts float in water for weeks to remote islands -some are covered in hooks – the Cocklebur is caught on animal fur and transported away from parent plant -some are flung several feet away from parent plant when lightly touched	Leaves -absorb light and carry out photosynthesis Leaf Parts: -cuticle – waxy top coating prevents water loss -epidermis cell – dermal cells under the cuticle that protect the leaf -mesophyll – contains chloroplasts that carryout photosynthesis -stomata – opening on the bottom of the leaf that lets in and out carbon dioxide and oxygen, and lets water vapor  out -guard cells – found on each side of a stomata the open and close to conserve water Leaf Adaptations:  Flower Adaptations -size, shape, color, and type of nectar adapted to attract pollinators Chemical Adaptations: -skin irritants like urishol in poison ivy; repellants and deterrants like a bitter taste or insecticides; toxins that make it poisonous Dry: -small leaves, thick waxy cuticle, fewer stomata for dry environments -cactus – no true leaves – have spines – protect plant but have no chloroplasts to reduce water loss; chloroplasts and stomata on stems; stomata close during the day to prevent water loss; -conifers – thin leaves to allow snow to fall off and not break limb; waxy coating on leaves; keep leaves to begin photosynthesis early in spring Shady: -Large leaves to absorb sunlight in shady environments Moist: -many stomata to rapidly take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis in moist environments
Roots -take in water -tiny root hairs cover roots to increase surface area – take in more water -root cap protects the fast-growing root tip Kinds of Roots: -Fibrous roots – branch again and again; all equal in size; found in monocots -Taproots – one large root with secondary roots growing off the sides; found in dicots Root Adaptations: -extensive root system with extra root hairs to quickly absorb water – dry environments like deserts - Adventitious root – roots where they are not normally found like the roots on the stem of a poison ivy plant -Prop roots – roots partially in the air and partially in the ground; help keep plants from falling over; usually found in swamps; corn, mangrove trees

12.   Kingdom Animalia
-eukarytotic; multicellular; heterotrophs – NO CELL WALLS -usually move at some point in their lifetime -have specialized cells that make tissues, organs, and in most organ systems
Body Plans (Symmetry)
-Asymmetrical – no certain shape - sponge		-Radial symmetry – bodies arranged around a central point - starfish		-Bilateral symmetry– two mirror sides that are equal - humans
13.   Nine Phyla
Phylum Porifera -sponges – simplest of all animals -asymmetrical -made of only specialized cells -filter feeders	Phylum Cnidaria -carnivores like jellyfish, sea anemone, hydra, coral -radial symmetry -have cnidocytes – stinging cells -polyps – tentacles point up -medusa – tentacles point down		Phylum Platyhelminthes -flat worms -bilateral symmetry -some can regenerate like planaria		Phylum Nematoda -round worms -bilateral symmetry -bodies slender and pointed at each end -many are parasites like heart worms, hookworms, and pin worms
Phylum Annelid -segmented worms -bilateral symmetry -body divided into segments like earthworm, leach	Phylum Mollusca -soft body with muscular foot -may or may not have shell like squid, octopus, snail, slugs Class Bivalvia – the bivalves -two shells like clams; filter feeders		Phylum Echinodermata -star fish, sea urchins, sand dollars -radial symmetry -spiny skin and tube feet -external fertilization – produce large amount of offspring but needs water		Phylum Arthropoda -750,000 species – half of the known species of the world -segmented bodies, jointed legs, claws, antenna -exoskeleton made of chitin to protect body -Molt (shed exoskeleton) in order to grow – new exoskeleton is soft
Classes of Arthropods
Crustaceans -lobsters, crabs, crayfish, shrimp, barnacles -two pair antenna -mandible mouthparts	Arachnids -spiders, ticks, scorpions -8 legs		Millipedes and Centipedes -millipedes have 2 pairs of legs per segment -centipedes have 1 pair of legs per segmented		Insects -body divided into 3 parts -3 pairs of legs -undergo metamorphosis - a series of changes that occur as they develop from an egg to an adult; can live in different environments in different stages of its life
Phylum Chordata
Vertebrates - 99% of phylum chordata -vertebral column – strong backbone – replaces notocord as embryo develops -spinal cord inside vertebral column -bilateral symmetry
Ectotherms -  cold blooded  - temperature depends on environment
Fish -Class Agnatha – jawless fish like the lamprey – mouth always open -Class Chondricthyes – skeletons made of cartilage like the shark, rays -Class Osteichthyes – bony fish with swim bladder like goldfish, perch, bass		Amphibians -metamorphosis - hatch into tadpoles as larva then develop into adults with lungs -Class Urodela – salamander -Class Anura – frogs and toads -Class Apoda – caecilians carnival that resemble worms – no legs		Reptiles -dry, scaly skin prevents water loss -well developed lungs -eggs are leathery and tough -can’t live where it is cold -Order Squamata – Snakes -Order Crocodilia – alligators, crocs -Order Testudine – turtles, tortoises
Endotherms – warm blooded - body temperature is stable regardless of the environment.
Class Aves – birds -hollow bones for flight -beaks, feathers, rapid metabolism
Class Mammalia – mammals
-hair or fur -Four chambered heart			-Lungs -Mammary glands produce milk
Monotremes -mammals that lay eggs like the duck-bill platypus	Sloths, Anteaters, Armadillos -no teeth; eat insects		Insectivores -eat insects, long snouts, like moles, hedgehogs		Bats -can fly; eat fruit, insects, nectar
Placental Mammals -develop in womb of mother; placenta provides nourishment and oxygen	Marsupials -mammals that have a pouch where the undeveloped embryo climbs to finish developing		Rodents - two long curved teeth in upper and lower jaws that keep growing; mice, squirrels, chipmunks, porcupines, gerbils, gophers		Whales and Dolphins -adapted to underwater life; must surface to breathe
Zebras, Horses, Rhinos - herbivores; hooves with odd number of toes	Deer, Pig, Goats, Giraffes, Hippos - herbivores with even number of toes on each foot		Elephants - largest land animal; have trunks		Manatees and Sea Cows -slow moving herbivores
Primates - highly developed brain; complex behavior patterns; humans, apes, lemurs
Animal Adaptations
Attracting a Mate -courtship displays like a peacocks brightly colored feathers -sounds like frogs, crickets	Obtaining and Eating Food -specialized beaks (birds) – --short and strong for cracking seeds – finches --large beaks to catch fish --long sharp beaks for eating insects – woodpeckers - Baleen whales have special structures to strain food Dry Climates - Conserve water – camels Cold Climates - Thick fur, extra layer of fat, to regulate internal temperature		Obtaining and Eating Food -keen eyesight, sharp claws -Carnivores like the cat family have sharp claws and teeth to catch and eat prey as well as coloration that camouflages them. - Pit vipers have special sense organs on each side of head to detect warm-blooded prey -Herbivores like Cows have special teeth to grind grasses and grains and special stomachs to digest them Hot Climates – large ears to release heat		Mimicry -look like something should be avoided; viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly which has a bad taste
Coloration -warns other animals that they are poisonous; frogs in rain forest are yellow and red					Self-mimicry -one body part that mimics another to increase survival during an attack, or a predator appears harmless
Hard shells, plates, or spines porcupine quills, armadillo Chemicals – taste or smell; skunk; octopus ink					Stingers – protective; bee Body parts break off for protection; lizards tails
Nocturnal -active at night; large eyes, sense of smell Diurnal active during day -Protection – active when predators are asleep	Camouflage (cryptic coloration); blend in with surroundings; chameleon can change colors; rabbits fur color changes with season; predators blend in with their environment		Hibernation – not exposed to predators during cold weather; metabolism slows -digestion, respiration, heart rate Estivation –slower breathing, slower heartbeat, reptiles		Aggressive mimicry - lure prey to them; angler fish look like a rock and a spine that looks like a much smaller fish; scent to lure prey

Unit 14 Notes and Study Links

Unit 14 Evidences of Evolution CONCISE Notes

Study Link: https://quizlet.com/_1eakvz

1.      Natural Selection (lose traits)

a.      Acts on populations, not individual organisms

b.      Does not directly act on genes, only how frequent a gene is found in a population

c.       Describes how organisms that are best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce. 

d.      Causes populations to change as certain organisms reproduce and pass on their genes to future generations.

e.     
The traits of the organisms best suited to a certain habitat tend to become more frequent in a population over time

f.        Ex. White, brown, and black genes for rabbits exist; brown fur is more camouflaged and more likely to survive and pass the trait to offspring; the white and black gene may disappear

2.      Three Ways to Distribute Genes from Natural Selection

a.      Stabilizing Selection - favors the “norm”  

b.      Directional Selection - favors one extreme or the other

c.       Disruptive Selection - favors both extremes

3.      Mutations and Adaptations

a.      Random mutations change genetic code and are responsible for creating the variety of life

                                                              i.      Mutations (gain traits) may be beneficial, harmful, or neutral – add genetic variation

1.      May allow an organism to adapt in a changing environment

b.      Adaptations are any traits, physical or behavioral, that help an organism survive

                                                              i.      Ex. Forest rabbits may develop a mutation that causes albinism (white fur, pink eyes); if the climate in the area changes so that snow covers the ground most of the year, this mutation would be beneficial and be passed to other generations; otherwise it is harmful

4.     
Diversity in the Gene Pool

a.      Diversity is the variety of traits in a species

b.      Gene pool is the total number of genes available to a species

c.       Diversity allows species to adapt to different environments

                                                              i.      Overcome disasters (drought, famine, diseases)

d.      Species that has

                                                              i.      Large Gene Pool = Greater diversity = Better able to adapt and survive

                                                            ii.      Small Gene Pool = Less diversity = Lower chance of survival

5.      Genetic Drift – (lose traits) the change in the gene pool generated by chance – more likely in a small population – immigration and emigration

a.      By chance more brown-eyed insects are born, and over time, the population drifts toward having brown eyes instead of white

6.      Threat of Extinction (lose traits) - few organisms are available for mating and the species may die off, diversity has been diminished, limited genes available to offspring

a.      Example: The insects of the above population are eaten by a predator. There are only a few insects of this species left. If they do not reproduce, this species will cease to exist.

7.      The Founder Effect - a new colony formed by a small population with a limited gene pool

a.      Example: If only white eyed insects survive, then there will be no brown eye gene to pass on. This may or may not affect the survival of the population of insects. If there are any genetic defects in these founding insects, they will most likely be passed on and occur more often in the offspring.

8.      Selective Breeding (artificial selection) (usually lose traits, usually decrease diversity) – decreases gene pool as undesirable traits are bred out – more susceptible to disease, pest, climate change

a.      Farmers choose the crops that they plant based on what is good to eat, beauty, and what grows well in their climate. By doing this, the gene pool of the plants is reduced.

b.      Example: Wheat has been harvested for thousands of years. Wheat grew wild in many kinds of climates and it had a large gene pool. Farmers have remove undesirable traits from wheat by cross-pollinating the plants and have created hybrids that grow well in the current climate. If earth's climate were to change, wheat may not be grown because its gene pool has been reduced by selective breeding.

c.       However, sometimes breeders introduce mutations into the gene pool causing a greater genetic variation. See the many breed of dogs.

9.      Mutations (gain traits) - changes in the DNA that can ADD genetic variation

a.      Example: In a population of moths, dark wings are best adapted as its camouflages the moths with the dark bark of the trees. Moths born with white wings due to a mutation in their DNA would most likely be eaten by predators. However, if the climate changes and the bark of the trees changes to a lighter color, then white wings would provide better camouflage from predators.

10.  Antibiotic, Pesticide, and Herbicide Resistance  - In order to keep people healthy and well-fed, humans use chemicals to kill undesirable organisms – the use of these chemicals leads to high rates of mutations and resistance

a.      Bacteria have a high rate of mutations and reproduce very quickly. They can become resistant to the antibiotics we use in only a few generations.  In this way, natural selection allows these organisms to thrive.

11.  Speciation - The formation of a new species

a.      Occurs when members of a population no longer interbreed

b.      Caused by Isolation:

                                                              i.      Geographic Isolation

1.      A physical barrier that divides a population into two or more separate groups; lack of interbreeding leads to adaptations

a.      volcanic eruption, separation of land into islands

2.      Smaller populations may adapt in different ways, become new species

                                                            ii.      Temporal Isolation

1.      a species develops different reproductive cycles

a.      pollination or reproduction occurs at different times; day or night, spring or fall

2.      Become so different that they can no longer interbreed

                                                          iii.      Behavioral Isolation

1.      When two populations do not interbreed because of differences in courtship behaviors. 

a.      Ex – bird songs, dances, mating calls

12.  Evidence for Evolution

a.      Adaptations

                                                              i.      Structural adaptations - Change in an organisms body parts

1.      Mimicry - allows one species to resemble another

a.       king snake resembles coral snake

2.      Camouflage - allows a species to blend into their surroundings

                                                            ii.      Physiological adaptations - changes in an organisms metabolic processes – happen quickly

1.      Weeds are become resistant to pesticides, bacteria become resistant to antibiotics

b.      Fossils - Used to form timelines from one species to another that evolved from it

1.      Fossil - remains of organisms covered in mud or clay shortly after death

2.      Most are found in sedimentary rock

3.      Petrify –(fossilize)  minerals replace wood, shells, bone

                                                            ii.      Age of Fossils

1.      Relative Dating - Lowest layer of sedimentary rock oldest fossils

2.      Radiometric Dating – measure the amount or radioactive isotopes in the fossil

3.      Half-life – the time it takes for a radioactive material to decay into a different material; Carbon dating – tell how old it is

c.       Comparative anatomy

                                                              i.      Compare modern species with species believed to exist millions of years ago

1.      Determine what changes occurred and why

                                                            ii.      Homologous structures - Structural features with a common evolutionary origin.

1.      Develop from the same tissues as embryos and have similar internal structures.  They may look different on the outside, and they may have different functions

2.      Ex. The forelimb of a human, a bat, a crocodile, and a bird have similar skeletal structures, but have different functions

3.      Evidence that organisms evolved from a common ancestor.

a.      Whale fin, Crocodile limb, bird wing, human arm

                                                          iii.      Vestigial structures - body structures that has no present day use, but was useful to an ancestor

1.      A structure that seems to have no useful purpose now although they resemble structures that are useful in other species

2.      Ex. Ostrich have wings that don’t work, cave salamander have eyes that don’t work, pelvis bond in some whales

3.      Ostrich forelimbs, Human appendix

                                                           iv.      Analogous Structures – NOT EVIDENCE

1.      Structures that have similar functions but are not believed to have evolved from a common ancestor

a.      Ex. A birds wing and a butterfly wing have similar function but are structurally different

d.      Embryology - Comparing Embryos of different species for similarities

                                                              i.      Embryos, earliest stage of development, of different species look similar, may have a common ancestor

e.      Biochemistry – comparing DNA and RNA of different species

                                                              i.      Humans and gorillas share 98% of the same DNA

                                                            ii.      Humans and bananas share 70% of the same DNA

13.  Punctuated Equilibrium

a.      idea that suggests that long intervals in which little or no change occurs are suddenly interrupted by short bursts of quick, radical transitions – explains gaps in fossil record

14.  Gradual Evolution (Gradualism)

a.      new species evolve from existing species through gradual, often imperceptible changes rather than through abrupt, major changes

15.  Most scientists believe a combination of gradual evolution and punctuated equilibrium occurred over time

 

16.  Biogeography

a.      The study of how plants and animals are distributed around the world

b.      Depends on the migration ability of a particular species and how plants and animals have been separated from one another over time by continental drift (the movement of the continents)

                                                              i.      Plate Tectonics

1.      the surface of the earth is divided into large plates that continually move

2.      Pangaea – all landmasses were once connected in a single continent

c.       Ex. Apes are found only in Africa and Asia; these species must have been separated from a common ancestor early in their history and then evolved differently

17.  Divergent Evolution

a.      New species “diverge” or split from a common ancestor

b.      Ex. Apes and humans diverged from a common ancestor

c.       Adaptive Radiation

                                                              i.      Kind of divergent evolution in which one ancestral species splits into many related species

18.  Convergent Evolution

a.      Organisms that have similar characteristics but are not considered closely related

                                                              i.      Like sharks (fish) and dolphin (mammal)

19.  Coevolution

a.      A pattern of evolution in which two species must have evolved, or changed, together. 

b.      Ex- flowering plants and the insects that pollinate them are believed to be examples of coevolution

20.  Cladogram and Phylogenic Tree – a diagram that shows the relationship between species

a.      The organisms have a common ancestor

b.      The bottom of the cladogram is the furthest in the past

c.       Organisms that come from the same branch are closely related, like the kangaroo and koala

d.      Kangaroos, koalas, bats, and lions are have a common ancestor; they are all mammals